Fordism and Post-Fordism as Theories of Work Organisation Essay

Fordism and Post-Fordism as Theories of Work Organisation - Essay Example 54-55), it was not until over twenty years later that the term Fordism came into being. Antonio Gramsci, an Italian Communist imprisoned by Mussolini from 1926 to 1937 (Slattery, 1991, p. 125), authored the article 'Americanism and Fordism' in 1931. In this stinging critique of capitalism, he breaks down the fundamental changes occurring to the characteristics of labour. For 'the purpose of American society-developing in the worker to the highest degree automatic and mechanical attitudes, breaking up the old psycho-nexus of qualified professional work and reducing productive operations exclusively to the mechanical, physical aspect' (Gramsci, 1931, p. 290). Generally, Fordism is defined by standardisation of labour and components, usage of the assembly line, strict specialisation of semi-skilled labour and high production levels. This mass manufacturing depended on a stable economy and a predictable mass consumerism, for 'without the mass consumption of mass-produced products, companies would quickly go bankrupt' (O'Donnell, 1997, p. 252). The fundamental need for so many consumers led to the development of widespread advertising (Kirby et al, 2000, p. 340). Yet what distinguishes this paradigm shift is, as Gramsci noted above, the removal of decision-making power from the worker. A relative contemporary of Ford, Frederick Taylor, proposed that all mental activity should be removed from the factory floor so workers could almost become machines, with their pay tied to personal productivity (O'Donnell, 1997, p. 288). Fordism meant great homogeny, efficiency and output, which in turn meant greater prosperity. However, the strict division of labour created an unmotivated work force increasingly alienated from management. Competitive pay was not sufficient to stop the rapid turnover, and the growth of unions such as Industrial Workers of the World during this period attests to this dissatisfaction (Grint, 1998, p. 284). Additionally, Fordism needed a reliable economy and consumer base-this is illustrated by the number of companies, such as Ford, which only survived the American Great Depression due to large scale government intervention (O'Donnell, 1997, p. 252). Another factor is that drastic increases in productivity of the first stage of Fordism were unique-subsequent changes were less effective, for 'there was a finite limit to, or at least declining return from, the extent to which time and motion studies etc. could increase productivity' (Grint, 1998, p. 284). Once an entire industry converted, it became difficult to continue finding significant ways to heighten productivity and furt her decrease costs. Eventually these disadvantages, along with the rise of a new type of mass consumerism, would set the stage for the conditions the next theory of work organisation is based upon-Post-Fordism. As technological advances and consumer wants became more varied, a new theory of work organisation was proposed in The Second Industrial Divide by Michael Piore and Charles Sabel in 1984. Responding to the economic downturn of the 1970's and the limitations of mass production (Kirby et al, 2000, p. 340), they held that a new system was coming into being, motivated by increasing consumer demand for specialised

College Life Essay Example for Free

College Life Essay Wow! The first week of college was a breeze. All my professors seemed so nice. Class never lasted longer than thirty minutes. I did not have to carry any books to class for that whole week. Finding classes was some what tough, even though my classes are around the same area. I did not have any homework to do. I did not see my friends as much but we hung out as much as we could. I went to a different party each night of the week and still attended all of my classes. I do not need a bed time. I know how to get up, but now things have changed. College life is going to be a difficult transition for me. Having to move away from my family is going to take some time to get used to. Waking myself up everyday will be a chore in itself. Now I will have a roommate to be considerate of. I will decide if I should attend a party or go to a club without someones approval. I can go to the club with out my mom having the final verdict. I will hang out with my friends anytime I want to. I will have to learn how to manage my own money and time. At the end of the day college is all of what I make it. May it be hard for some and easy for others it is up to me to decide how I will adjust to college life; will I go to class; study for my test; waste my money; like my roommate? The distance between Greensboro, North Carolina and Washington, DC is greater than what I thought. I thought the number of miles apart would be a good thing but once again time has proven me wrong. I find myself calling home and cherishing every conversation I have with my family more and more. I send them emails when they do not answer the phone. Sometimes call to check on my younger brothers and sisters which I could not stand when I was at home. I miss my mom the most. She is the person who I thought that I would miss the least. Being home sickness has really set in. Also I miss driving my car anywhere I want to go. I miss just sitting on my front porch talking to my neighbors and their children. I miss going to work and making my own money to spend on whatever I want to. I miss going to the high school football game to see my brother play and my sister cheer. I really miss a home cooked meal and enjoying it with my family on a Sunday night after church. I miss getting my hair done every two to three weeks. It is hard to wake myself up everyday. It is hard to get up everyday to go to class because I go to sleep so late at night from talking to my friends or doing homework. It is also, hard because I do not get enough sleep at night. I have an eight oclock a. m. class that I struggle to get up for almost everyday of the week. Also I struggle to stay up for my six oclock p. m. classes. I knew it was going to get hard but I did not think it would get hard this fast. I have to do my homework in between classes so I will have enough time to go to sleep each night. Getting to know my roommate, Ebony, is the second hardest thing to do. It is hard because she is so different from me. She is from Elizabeth City, North Carolina and I am from Washington, DC. She listens to different music, wears different clothes, and acts different from me because she is from a different geographical region from me. During the first week at school we did not talk much. She does not to appreciate our dorm room because it is smaller than her room at home. She always slept and if she was not sleep then she was hanging out with her friends. She did not talk to anyone from our suites. Now, she is not afraid talk to us. She has friends over now and introduces them to us. She went to a club with us for the first time and that has been the only club that she has been to since she has been here. Before I came to college I thought I would always go to parties or the club. That thought has proven to be just a thought, not reality. I can party all the time if I want to but that would be wasting all of my parents money. I have to think about my classes before I go to a club. I know that the best days for me to go to the club are on Wednesday and Friday nights, because I do not have class on Thursday mornings or on Saturdays. So I just do not go to the clubs with my friends all of the time. I learned quick how to say no to going out. Eventually I will not have any money if I keep going to the clubs or parties. I enjoy hanging out with my friends, but I know that is not always possible. They always try to get me to do things when I need to study. They get upset at me when I tell them no. I guess that is because they have not adjusted to the fact that we will not always be able to hang out. I still try to eat lunch and dinner with them almost everyday. It is not possible to hang out with my friends anymore because of the difference in our class schedules. We also do not hang out anymore because of the activities that we all take part in. Sometimes my friends go home on the weekend so we do not get to hang out on the weekends either. Managing my own money and time is a hard task. Usually my mom tells me what to buy and what not to. Now that she is not here who will help me? It is up to me to make the right choice. Do I buy the Jordan sneakers that come out on the seventeenth or do I save that money for a better investment? Since that choice is up to me I will probably buy the Jordan sneakers. My mom would want me to save the money and spend it on something that I really need; like school books and food. It is not her responsibility to manage my money anymore. Time management is equally important. I will have to know how to spend the appropriate amount of time per day studying for my classes. I must not procrastinate on my assignments. I find it that I am always waiting until the last minute to do the work for my classes, because I work best under pressure. In summary the transition from high school to college has been an interesting one. I will learn more in-depth into all subjects that I learned in high school especially business. Making the decision to buy the Jordans sneakers will always be a decision that I look back on in the future. Going to the club on Thursday and waking up for my eight oclock a. m. class is going to be a big choice to make. It will be hard to know how much time I need to study for test or quizzes in any of my classes. I am still learning how to interact with my roommate. In order to make her fell comfortable around me and my friends. I have managed to wake myself up for class ever since I started to attend North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University.

Autonomous midwifery practice safeguards childbearing womens health

Autonomous midwifery practice safeguards childbearing womens health In 1902 The Midwives Act was introduced and the main reason was to protect women from those birth attendants who were unqualified. The Midwives Institute (now the RCM), encouraged the Act as they wanted to raise the status of the profession and open it up to more middle class women. The Act established the Central Midwives Board, after much changing we know this now to be the NMC. The Central Midwives Board created rules and standards that Midwives had to follow and supervision was introduced. Although, Clarke (2004) agrees that women benefited by having a qualified midwife, she argues that the Act actually took away Midwives autonomy, and midwives had to accept having their practice defined and restricted by Doctors. The midwives institute it seems also happily agreed the division between midwives work and doctors work, again showing that midwives were subservient to the medicine (Clarke 2004). The NMCs main function is to protect the public by maintaining a register of practicing Midwives Autonomy can be defined as : à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. the right of self government, the ability of the Midwife to practice on her own responsibility for women in normal pregnancy and childbirth. Winson McDonald (2005) p22. Thompson (2004)suggests that autonomy or self-determination is a key value to midwifery and one that should be expanded so that it includes both the midwives right to practice decisions and the mothers right to decide the care that she wants (p50). The Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC, 2008) also demands that you [Nurses Midwives] are personally accountable for actions and omissions in your practice and must always be able to justify your actions. This is reaffirmed in the NMC (2004) Midwives Rules and Standards when it advises that practice should be based on best available evidence and we are accountable for our own practice accountability cannot be taken from us from another practitioner and accountability cannot be given to us from another practitioner p17. Ledward (2004) reminds us that autonomy should not be limitless, midwives should work within their own personal competence. If a woman is low risk and uncomplicated then obstetrics should not interfere. Although Myles (p7 ref properly) agrees, they go on to advise that autonomy is not about creating professional boundaries or exerting powers to protect what they see if their territory does this mean that we shouldnt be autonomous Drivers for safeguarding Changing Childbirth Changing Childbirth was based on the principle of autonomy, it expanded the midwives professional autonomy and the main focus was that care should be woman centred (Ledward 2004). Deery Kirkham (2006) try to advise why the teams that were set up after Changing Childbirth did not work. Caroline Flints team who were the focus of a know your midwife (KYM) scheme, had worked as a team for a while and each person had a strength so their dynamics were successful. When teams were created during the NHS Deery Kirkham suggest that no thought was given to the team environment and as such midwives were quite anxious and felt demotivated and demoralized. These midwives, who were meant to provide support to the women in their care, were not supported in their working environment. It was apparent that the focus was on finances and not on the women. This was echoed by Clarke (2004) who suggests that changing childbirth wasnt accepted by midwives as they felt unprepared and unwilling to accept th e new level of responsibility (p227) Maternity Matters As a driver to safeguard childbearing and womens health, it seems appropriate to say what they advice autonomous to mean. Autonomy means having the freedom to act on behalf of childbearing women and work in partnership, have knowledge and capability to provide continuous care for straightforward pregnancies as well as having a working relationship with other members of the healthcare team. Do you agree The executive summary advised its aim was to develop a patient-led NHS that uses available resources as effectively and fairly as possible to promote health, reduce health inequalities and deliver the best and safest health care. It also advised that there should be National choice guarantees:- 1. Choice of how to access maternity care 2. Choice of type of antenatal care 3. Choice of place of birth homebirth birth in local facility , inc hospital, with MLC birth in hospital with maternity team 4. Choice of postnatal care. Is it happening anywhere? The Prime Ministers Commission on the future of Nursing and Midwifery in England It drew on systematic reviews conducted in OECD countries with broadly comparable health systems and nursing/midwifery roles; 17 of the 32 reviews looked at studies from the UK. It only included studies where it could be ascertained what was being done and by whom, and to what other types of care nursing and midwifery was compared (no intervention, different models of nursing or midwifery care, or care from other health professionals).Can easily be interpreted as a revision of Maternity Matters and NSF Children, Young People and Maternity Services and Changing Childbirth. The Commission was launched by the Prime Minister on 10 March 2009, and was asked to report by the end of March 2010. It was highlighted early on that there was room for improvement in maternity services; there were unnecessary medical interventions, limited choices limited involvement in decision making for women. The commission called for views off people and in 4 months their independent website had had 14000 hits. They received 2500 views, but this was from organisations on behalf of their members and individuals. Most people understood the role of the midwife in relation to maternity, however, many worryingly, believed that the doctor input was necessary even in normal pregnancy. They reviewed existing effectiveness ( cost effectiveness) drew on rapid systematic reviews and the findings for midwifery was positive! Midwife led care for low risk women compared to dr led care appears to improve a range of maternal outcomes. à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å"no of procedures in labour and à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ satisfaction with care. No evidence of any adverse outcomes associated with MLC. They have proposed a pledge to be taken on under the NHS constitution, which they believe after interpreting the feedback, renew the sense of civic responsibility and provide guidance on handling the impact of economic pressures on health services. The guiding principles of the NHS are underpinned by core values derived from extensive discussions with staff, patients and public. These values are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ respect and dignity à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ commitment to quality of care à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ compassion à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ improving lives à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ working together for patients à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ everyone counts. Evaluation of midwifery Our commissioned review found evidence of the benefits of midwifery in three systematic reviews conducted in the UK, Switzerland and the USA that compared midwife-led care during pregnancy and after birth with doctor-led care (Caird et al. 2010). No evidence of a difference between providers was found for infant outcomes. Midwife-led care demonstrated better maternal outcomes than doctorled care with respect to pregnancy-induced hypertension, spontaneous vaginal birth and breastfeeding initiation, and less intervention, in terms of instrumental deliveries, episiotomies, use of analgesia and anaesthesia. Women receiving midwife-led care were less likely to experience antenatal hospitalization and fetal monitoring in labour. Midwife-led care was beneficial in terms of service users satisfaction and perception of care, and was more likely than doctor-led care to result in attendance at birth by a known midwife. There was no evidence of a difference between providers with respect to some other maternal outcomes and interventions, including Caesarean sections. The mean number of antenatal visits and duration of postnatal stay did not differ between providers. Other studies support this evidence that midwife-led care for low-risk women, when compared to doctor-led care, appears to improve a range of maternal outcomes, reduce the number of procedures in labour, and increase satisfaction with care. The narrower scope and more specific expected outcomes of midwifery make its socioeconomic case easier to construct. The challenge is not to analyse what midwives can contribute, but to ensure their resource is properly used. At present, for example, there is some wasteful duplication between midwife and GP, and midwife and obstetrician. The midwifery offer has not changed and the midwife should work at all times in the way she is enabled to in statute and through education; otherwise society is not getting best value for money. High Impact Actions for Nursing Midwifery A page advises that increasing normal birth and stop unnecessary caesarean sections through MWs taking the lead role. Gould (2010) advises that this document defines the need to rebalance between medical focus and more emphasis on involving midwifery, however, Goldstein (2007) (In Gould 2010) suggests that more work should be done to stop loss aversion phenomena, whereby the public believe that an obstetric unit becoming a midwife led unit is a downgrade and not a positive. A sense of loss for not having Drs and Epidural available. However, it could also be that this time of budget cutting, could assist with the Prime Ministers commission as Gould (2007) suggests that medicalization will not be affordable. This would certainly help with a redistribution of power.

Carl Sandburgs View of Language Essay -- Poem Poet Essays

Carl Sandburg's View of Language Carl Sandburg's poem Languages is a poem about how languages can change over time. On the surface level, it compares the evolution of language to the formation of a river. At the same time, however, it makes a statement on why languages are difficult to label and mark. The lines dividing languages blur very easily. Languages There are no handles upon a language Whereby men take hold of it And mark it with signs for its remembrance. It is a river, this language, Once in a thousand years Breaking a new course Changing its way to the ocean. It is mountain effluvia Moving to valleys And from nation to nation Crossing borders and mixing. Languages die like rivers. Words wrapped round your tongue today And broken to shape of thought Between your teeth and lips speaking Now and today Shall be faded hieroglyphics Ten thousand years from now. Sing-and singing-remember Your song dies and changes And is not here tomorrow Any more than the wind Blowing ten thousand years ago The first three lines of the poem talk about how man has no firm grip on language. It is clearly not a physical thing to be grasped, and it cannot be marked as such. There is an attachment between men and language, but it is not clear. This may be a statement on the many different languages humans speak. It may not be clear when a language has completely changed into something different, or when it is merely a different dialect. It is hard to tell where the boundaries are, which is why it is described as having no handles for men to take hold of and mark it with signs for its remembrance. These difficulties arise because exactly what makes a language is difficult to determine. Sometimes it can be... ...guage dies. In its entirety, this poem describes how a language can evolve or die, and how things said in this language can change or die with it. Boundaries between languages may not be clear. Like rivers they can travel close together, or merge completely. All languages, however, act as rivers. They start at a source and travel. They then travel, merge, or fade away. Upon closer examination, the poem also says why languages are difficult to label. The reason is that they change with time. The English language of today is not the same English language spoken hundreds of years ago. As all languages evolve similarly, this applies to all languages. Subtle changes in gestures, writing, or spoken language eventually add up. After a long enough period of time it is as though an entirely new language has formed, but kept the same name as the previous language.

Change Management in the Learning Organization Essay

In this paper I intend to discuss change management approaches that support the learning organization philosophy. The learning organization is defined as an organization that acquires knowledge and innovates fast enough to survive and thrive in a rapidly changing environment. Learning organizations (1) create a culture that encourages and supports continuous employee learning, critical thinking, and risk taking with new ideas, (2) allow mistakes, and value employee contributions, (3) learn from experience and experiment, and (4) disseminate the new knowledge throughout the organization for incorporation into day-to-day activities. On the other hand we have a process called change management which is defined as minimizing resistance to organizational change through involvement of key players and stakeholders. At my organization these two go hand in hand and it allows for us as a company to experience constant growth and development of our staff. Our employees are more willing to welco me change when we train them in the process. As businesses moves through the 21st century, they are becoming more dependent upon their managers to be change agents. These companies actually seek managers who can bring success to their organizations. Three of the characteristics we look for in our new managers are they must have the ability to stimulate change, excellent planning capabilities, and ethics. Over the years I have spent in management I have learned that success in  becoming a learning organization relies on a commitment to learning on the part of the organizations I have worked for and the willingness of the individuals involved to be receptive to the change process. As a manager, what we usually can change falls into basically three categories; people, structure, or technology. An efficient manager will make alterations in these areas in an attempt to facilitate change. With people the change involves adjusting attitudes, expectations, perceptions, and probably most importantly behavior. Coaching people to adjust in these areas will help employees within the organization to work together more effectively. Changing structure relates to the job design, specialization, hierarchy and any other structural variables. These usually need to be flexible and non-static in order to be adaptable to change. When dealing with technological change we are looking at modifying work processes and methods along with the introduction of new equipment. To me learning organizations support the change process just as much as change management supports the learning organization philosophy. I say that because every change calls for some sort of learning as the more comprehensive the change the more attention we have to place on learning for the individuals involved in the change. By utilizing the learning organizations philosophies companies including the one I work for are able to magnify the potential of its employees which keeps them growing. References www.businessdictionary.com www.morfconsulting.com Learning in action: a guide to putting the learning organization to work/ David A. Garvin

Definition and Examples of Conduplicatio in Rhetoric

Definition and Examples of Conduplicatio in Rhetoric Conduplicatio is a  rhetorical term for the repetition of one or more words in successive clauses. Also called  reduplicatio or reduplication. According to the Rhetorica ad Herennium (c. 90 BC), the purpose of conduplicatio is usually either amplification or an appeal to pity. Examples and Observations Where have all the flowers gone?Long time passing.Where have all the flowers gone?Long time ago.Where have all the flowers gone?Girls have picked them every one.When will they ever learn?When will they ever learn? (Pete Seeger and Joe Hickerson, Where Have All the Flowers Gone?) The inherent vice of capitalism is the unequal sharing of blessings; the inherent virtue of socialism is the equal sharing of miseries. (Winston Churchill) Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted.Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth.Blessed are they that hunger and thirst after righteousness: for they shall be filled.Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy.Blessed are the pure in heart: for they shall see God.Blessed are the peacemakers: for they shall be called sons of God.Blessed are they that have been persecuted for righteousness sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. (Jesus, Sermon on the Mount, Matthew 5:3-10) We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of Gods children. (Martin Luther King, Jr., I Have a Dream, 1963) Then thou thy regal Sceptre shalt lay be,For regal Sceptre then no more shall need,God shall be All in All. But all ye Gods,Adore him, who to compass all this dies,Adore the Son, an honor him as mee. (John Milton, Paradise Lost, Book III, lines 339-343) Now the trumpet summons us againnot as a call to bear arms, though arms we neednot as a call to battle, though embattled we arebut a call to bear the burden of a long twilight struggle, year in and year out, rejoicing in hope; patient in tribulation, a struggle against the common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself. (President John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address, 1961) Multiple Cases of Duplicatio Cases of conduplicatio can be combined, as in this fine case where several nouns and modifiers (empire, revenue, army, worst) are repeated to create a tightly wound effect: I allow, indeed, that the Empire of Germany raises her revenue and her troops by quotas and contingents; but the revenue of the Empire and the army of the Empire is the worst revenue and the worst army in the world.[Edmund] Burke, Speech on Conciliation With the Colonies, 1775 The double use of conduplicatio. A classic pattern in the use of this scheme involves two initial claims, each of which is then repeated with elaboration or reasons for it.... We are dregs and scum, sir: the dregs very filthy, the scum very superior.[George Bernard] Shaw, Man and Superman, 1903 (Ward Farnsworth, Farnsworths Classical English Rhetoric. David R. Godine, 2011)